M. I. Vasiliev, Novgorod State University

41 Saint-Peterburgskaya St., Veliky Novgorod, 173003, Russia

E-mail: mvas1957@mail.ru

UDC 17.0

Sleds are one of the most popular types of Russian land transport since the era of Ancient Russia [Voronin, 1948; Kolchin, 1968; pp. 1-96, Tables 1-85; Artsikhovsky, 1969]. As in other elements of material culture, they reflect the peculiarities of the development of economic activity, the degree of social division of labor, the specifics of social development of society, etc. Therefore, the study of toboggan transport is relevant for modern historical science, as it provides additional arguments for a more objective characterization of Russian society in different periods of history.

Cultural and anthropological research of sleds can be carried out from different positions. An important source of information is the functional characteristics of toboggan transport. Meanwhile, despite the existence of a number of archaeological and historical-cultural works on Russian vehicles, most of them deal with this aspect indirectly, in the most general terms (see: Voronin, 1948; Artsikhovsky, 1969; Marasinova, 1977; Kovrigina and Masarinova, 1979; Marasinova, 1985). Only in the works of B. A. Kolchin and his followers is the functional purpose of sledges the subject of analysis [Kolchin, 1968, p. 51-56; Khoroshev, 1997, p. 126-127; Dubrovin, 2000, p.122-153]. However, their conclusions require serious correction. The lack of development of this problem in relation to the XVI-XVIII centuries is due, in my opinion, to the insufficient use of both published and unpublished archival materials.

In general, the situation is satisfactory only with studies on the ethnographic period, despite the fact that they mainly cover peasant transport (Bezhkovich, 1959; Lebedeva, 1987). However, ethnographers do not give an answer to the question of when the Russian traditions of the XIX-XX centuries arose. the main modifications of cargo, universal and passenger sleds, in particular: drovni, podsanki, household sleds, sledges, passenger sleds, etc. An attempt to solve this problem is presented in this study, which examines the history of Russian sledges through the prism of their functional purpose. The chronological framework of the work covers the period from the X century, when the first evidence of sledge transport of the Eastern Slavs appears, to the XIX century, for which there are fairly definite ethnographic materials.

For a long time, written monuments and miniatures were the main sources for the species diversity of sleds of the X-XV centuries. They only provide information about two types of sliding carts - sledges and carts. At the same time, the term "sledge" refers exclusively to skidded vehicles, and "cart" also refers to wheeled vehicles (Artsikhovsky, 1969, p.314; Marasinova, 1977, p. 290). These materials led many researchers to think about the universality of carts in Pskov Russia. This can be traced even in relation to transport in the 17th century [Kovrigina and Masarinova, 1979, p. 140-141]. Along with this interpretation, there was another point of view, according to which the Old Russian sledge

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They were similar to those of the 19th and 20th centuries [Truvorov, 1889, p. 454-455; Voronin, 1948, p. 306]. However, it did not lead to the development of the idea of specialized sleds in Ancient Russia until the introduction of a new category of historical sources in the late 1960s.

The discovery of Novgorod archaeological materials gave grounds to speak about a greater variety of ancient Russian skidding transport than is reflected in written monuments. According to B. A. Kolchin, in the X-XV centuries in Russia there were five types of sleds: four sledges - universal cargo, passenger cars, cars with a high bed (or running), carriage sleds (distinguished by the presence of a closed body); one-manual [1968, p. 54]. This scheme is also reproduced in the generalizing archaeological work on the everyday culture of Ancient Russia [Khoroshev, 1997, p. 126].

In my opinion, the existing ideas about the functional specifics of ancient Russian sleds need some adjustment. As it was shown in the special article, the clarifications concern both the boundaries of the types of carts and their appearance (Vasiliev, 2006). The most controversial in the existing classification are the allocation of "running" passenger sleds with a collapse and a high bed and the reconstruction of the sledge-cart as a complete analogue of the cart of the XVII century. Archaeological finds give reason to see in them other variants of the Old Russian sledge [Ibid.].

The analysis of archaeological materials made it possible to identify in the era of Ancient Russia the entire range of functional groups of sledges known in ethnographic times: cargo, universal and passenger. However, the medieval sledge generally had a more universal character than existed a few decades ago. In addition to the device, an indirect evidence of the multifunctionality of most Old Russian sleds is the small number of their names until the last decades of the XV century. The dominant group was universal household sleds, which transported both goods and people, while specialized passenger sleds occupied a modest place, which is why they are quite difficult to identify in archaeological materials [Ibid.].

All of the above allows us to speak about the era of Domoskovskaya Rus ' as the initial period of development of various functional groups of sleds of the Eastern European type, which ended in the second half of the XV century with the appearance of specialized sleds: cargo firewood [Novgorod scribal books..., 1886, stb. 98, 145, 188, 195, 206; 1905, stb. 191], passenger "bolkov" and "tapkan" [Pskov Chronicles, 1955, p. 191; Monuments..., 1882, p. 169]. At the same time, the "sleigh-poshevni" indicated as a feudal payment from the peasants of the Shelonsky pyatina at the end of the XV century, judging by the large number (ten carts from three small-family villages) [Novgorod scribal books..., 1886, stb. 191-192] and several later sleds of this type probably represented the main modification of the universal household vehicle of Ancient Russia, previously called a sled.

Since the end of the 15th and 16th centuries, due to the objective trend of increasing specialization of transport, the number of specialized types of sleds has increased significantly. A special variety of carts was typical for monastic, boyar and grand ducal (royal) farms.

In addition to the usual firewood (general-purpose cargo sleds), at this time there were "Kremlin" (or "roll")ones [Nikolsky, 1910, p. DLXXXI] and "porches" [Inventory..., 1861, p. 112; Dictionary..., 1990, p. 76, 89]. Judging by later analogues, they differed from the usual ones by their predominant use in the spring and autumn period. Sources also include "stern "sleds (Nikolsky, 1910, p. DCXXIV)," water-carrying "sleds (Slovar'..., 1975, issue 2, p.255), and" water trucks " (Ibid., p. 254). The first were intended for the transportation of straw and hay, the second-water, for which they had a tub or barrel fixed on the platform, the third-seine and differed from the rest, judging by ethnographic analogues, in large size.

Most of these cargo wagons were used by various social groups and continued to exist until recently [Varfolomeev, 1875; Evlentyev, 1879; Strokin, 1887, p. 9-10; Promysly..., 1888, p. 11; Kulikovsky, 1898, p. 67; Kuchin, 1901, p. 47; Krukovsky, 1904, p. 212; Dal, 1994, vol. 2, p. 487) (Author's field materials, Pinezhsky and Primorskiy districts of the Arkhangelsk region and Nes village of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, 1983; Archive of NGOMZ. N 2354. L. 81. Photos 124-125; N 3271. Photo 80-85; RGADA. F. 1192. Op. 3. N 19. L. 2). Only the term "porches" became local in the XIX-XX centuries and began to denote short sleds ("podsanki") for laying tree tops [Voronov, 1896, p. 588, Fig. 1; Winter skiing..., 1992, p. 10, fig. 3] (Archive of REM. f. 7. Op. 1. N 682. l. 20).

In the XVIII century, scrap drovni appeared in the city and existed until the first third of the XX century, the distinctive feature of which was a platform made of planks, bound with metal strips (Rivosh, 1990, p. 99; Shangina, 2003, p. 270) (RGIA. F. 477. Op. 2. N 246. l. 41 vol., 44, 65).

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In addition to open carts, quite widespread in the farms of the tsar, the nobility, rich monasteries, merchants were in the era of Moscow Rus intended for the transportation of various goods "woz" sledges, a little later - "bolkovni", which often had a canopy [Razkhodnaya kniga..., 1852, p. 1, 39, 40; Inventory..., 1861, p. 82; Description of notebooks..., 1883, p. 495; Pereslavl-Zalessky..., 1891, p. 23; Karnovich, 1884, p. 335-336; Dahl, 1994, vol. 1, p. 269-270; Dictionary..., 1975, issue 1, p. 282, 284] (OR RNB. F. IV. N 232. L. 762; N 233. L. 348, 348 vol.; RGADA. F. 1239. Op. 3. N 54422. l. 2 vol.). In many ways similar (transportation of various food and other supplies) was the functional purpose of covered "koshevy" sleds, "polubov" (or "decks"), and later "furmans" used in the royal, boyar and large monastic farms of the XVII-XVIII centuries. [Rozysknye delo..., 1893, stb. 175; Slovar..., 1988, p. 136; Karnovich, 1884, p. 335] (RGADA. f. 396. Op. 2. N 1022. l. 440 vol.; OR RNB. F. 351. N 104/1340. l. 451 vol.; GR. F. 513. Op. 1. N 417. l. 50 vol.; N 646. L. 40). The most stable of the cargo sleds with a canopy turned out to be "vozovye", which were important in trading activities. They were preserved until the XX century. "Koshevy" sleds, sledge "decks" and "furmans" gave way in the XIX century to wheeled wagons and wagons (Tuchkov, 1818, p. 28, 86; Golubykh, 1930, p.62-63).

A significant number of specialized covered cargo sleds that appeared in the era of Moscow Rus were limited to the framework of the tsarist economy. Thus, birds intended for the royal falconry were transported in "bird houses"; royal underwear was sent to the river for rinsing in "portomoy" houses [Kotoshikhin, 1840, p. 26; Additions..., 1853, p. 435; Anuchin, 1890, p. 131; Zabelin, 1901, p. 696; Alekseev, 1941, p. 345; Denisova, 1954, p. 299] (RGADA. f. 396. Op. 2. Ch. 2. N 1022. l. 440 vol.). There were also so-called carts. Researchers distinguish three types of them - "cross", "spare" and "bed". In the first were icons ("figurative treasury"), in the second-the royal dress and linen, in the third-chests with the royal bed [Crews..., 1985, p. 17; Kirillova, 2000, p. 30]. However, the analysis shows that the" carts "on skids were only" bed " (RGADA. F. 396. Op. 2. Ch. 2. N 1022. L. 455), the rest had a wheeled course (Ibid. L. 433-433 rev., 455 - 455 rev.). At the same time," spare "and" cross " carts on runners are called sleds in the sources, which makes it possible to refer them to open vehicles (Ibid. l. 433-433 vol.).

Major changes in tsarist life that occurred during Peter's time led to the oblivion of most specialized carts. Of these, only those intended for the transportation of royal road toilets and other things, which partially changed the design and name, were preserved in the future - "gardirobny", and then" road " sleds and kibitkas (RGIA. F. 477. Op. 2. N 246. L. 76-76 vol.; Op. 7. N 81. l. 153 vol.; N 288. l. 7).

The next group of new functional modifications of sleds in the XVI-XVIII centuries consisted of household ones, often referred to in sources as "roskohod" and "ezzhaly" [Razkhodnaya kniga..., 1852, p. 38] (RGADA. F. 1196. Op. 3. N 144. L. 3, 4). A typical monastic type of such sleds is considered to be the most common type of sledge. The sledges of the Muscovite Rus ' era were "Bratsk", "Chernecheskie", and "sleigh of cathedral elders" (see: [Nikolsky, 1910, p. 2; Razkhodnaya kniga..., 1875, stb.129-130; Materials..., 1994, p. 191]). They disappeared along with the loss of the monasteries of their possessions in the XVIII century. Even faster, the "malt" sledges that were available at the tsar's Stable yard fell out of use. They were used to glorify Christ during Yuletide in the early 18th century. The cost of these sleds was several times higher than that of workers [Description of notebooks..., 1883, p. 494] (RGADA. F. 396. Op. 2. N 1021. l. 9, 78 vol.). They probably got their name from the word "licorice", which in the Tver and Rzhev dialects meant "game", "celebration of Epiphany evening, Christmas Eve, with divination, songs" [Dahl, 1994, vol. 1, p. 379].

Probably, not later than the XVII century. there were universal sledges-sledges, which had poles on the sides-bends. So suggests the presence of bends - "wings" in some passenger sleds [Legends..., 1834, p. 43], as well as the material relating to 1666, which refers to "chairs" in the sled: "To the cup holder, Elder Ignatius, that he installed willow on wood in the chairs, and for bast 4 alt<yna> 2den < ygi>" [Dictionary..., 1981, p. 39]. Another indirect evidence is the existence of the term "mallards", which refers to poles attached at an angle in the rear part of the body of one of the carts of the last quarter of the XVII century. (RGADA. F. 396. Op. 2.N 1022. L. 452). Since the XVIII century and until recently, sledge wagons were one of the most common variants of universal carts [Inventory of the estate..., 1993, p. 217] (OR RNB, F. 351. N 104/1340. l. 451 vol. - 452; RGADA. F. 1192. Op. 3. N 19. L. 2; F 1239. Op. 3. N 54422. l. 2 vol.; RGIA. F. 477. Op. 7. N 2. L. 79; N 3. L. 21).

In the XVI-XVII centuries, poshevni ("oshevni", "obshevni"), which received the name because of the bast lining of the body, were largely universal, economic and household in nature [Acts..., 1894, p. 1248; Acts of historical..., 1841, p. 313; Fasmer, 1996, p. 349; Dictionary... , 1987, p. 237].

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Specialized passenger sleds of this type, which differed from cargo-passenger ones by a high price, were less common at that time [Slovar'..., 1980, p. 331] (Archive of the SPBIII, F. 276. Op. 1. N 99/5. l. 11). Only in the 18th century did poshevni gradually transform from a vehicle for various purposes into one of the most common types of open passenger sledges, retaining its economic and domestic function in the 19th and 20th centuries only in certain places (see, for example: [Serpukhov, 1866, p. 30; Shustikov, 1895, p. 360; Blomqvist, Grinkova, 1930, p. 65; Lebedeva, 1987, p. 331; Loginov, 1993, p. 68-69]) (RGIA. F. 477. Op. 4. N 99. l. 52; N 400. l. 100; Op. 7. N 2. L. 63 vol. - 64; N 3. l. 21 vol., 25 vol.; N 83. l. 116 vol., 117 vol.; N 289. L. 20-24; Gr. F. 480. Op. 1. N 1123. L. 37 vol.; OR RNB. F. 351. N 98/13346. L. 750; N 104/1340. l. 451 vol. - 452; Archive of REM. f. 7. Op. 1. N 290. l. 9; N 1796. l. 13 vol. -14).

Since the era of Moscow Rus, specialized passenger carriages have been numerous and diverse. Especially widespread are open passenger sleds. Unlike cargo and household goods, they were often decorated, which is why in the XVI - early XVIII centuries they were often called red [Acts..., 1878, p. 1006; Income and expense books..., 1903, issue 1, p. 108; 1904, p. 58; Description book..., 1904, p. 126].

In addition to general-purpose passenger sleds (usually named after the place of original manufacture), a number of highly specialized ones have appeared. Judging by the designation of some winter carts of the XVII century "skochki" (Merzon and Tikhonov, 1960, p. 571), which also existed in the XIX-XX centuries. [Dahl, 1994, vol. 2, p. 334-335; vol. 4, p. 30; Loginov, 1993, p. 68-69; Shangina, 2000, p. 257, 335], they were light field sleds of a racing type, which undoubtedly contributed to their popularity among the rich population of Russia.

In the royal, patriarchal and monastic farms of the XVI-XVIII centuries. a whole group of highly specialized passenger sleds appeared, the names of which denote their function: remote (funeral), memorial, Dmitrov [Tereshchenko, 1848, p. 107-108; Truvorov, 1889, p. 452; Anuchin, 1890, p. 130-131, note. 82; Zabelin, 1901, p. 632; 1905, p. 598] (RGADA. f. 396. Op. 2. N 1022. l. 432 vol., 480 vol.), palm*. The latter were used during the Palm Sunday procession [Anuchin, 1890, p.120], and the Dmitrovian ones were probably used on the most significant memorial days (Dmitrov Saturday was one of them). The portable sleigh disappeared from royal funerals due to a change in the rite at the end of the XVII century,** palm trees fell out of use for the same reason in the XVIII century. Then the crews used in the memorial rites lost their positions. To a large extent, this was probably due to the secularization of church lands and the reduction of the clergy's transport fleet.

In the Inventory of the Stable Treasury of 1706-1707, it is reported about the "rest" sledges of the XVII century, which were intended for rest and sleep during long journeys, for which they had a bed arranged on belts (RGADA. F. 396. Op. 2. N 1022. L. 437 vol. - 438 vol.). Despite the disappearance of the term in the XVIII-XIX centuries, this function of sledges was preserved partly in "field" and "road" carts (see below).

For a long time, highly specialized (wedding) sleds were considered to be "inaltsovsky" ("naltsovsky") sleds [Anuchin, 1890, p.117]. However, as the documents show, it is more correct to see them as "parade" sleighs, since they were also used for meetings of the most honorable persons and in the funeral rite [Zabelin, 1901, p. 643; Makarii..., 1906, p. 16, 18, 22, 24, 28, 52 - 53, 69].

Another specialized type of open passenger carts of the royal court in the last quarter of the XVII century were "funny", in the XVIII century - "masquerade" and "rolling" sleds. The former and latter were used by the court nobility as entertainment during festive actions, the latter - for Maslenitsa street performances and skating from artificial mountains [Description of the museum..., 1861, p. 39; Fagurel, 1998, p. 283-284; Pylyaev, 1990, p. 135] (RGADA. f. 396. Op. 2. N 1022. l. 438 vol. - 439 vol., 557 vol. - 558; F. 1239. Op. 3. N. 54422. L. 2 vol.; RGIA, F. 477. Op. 7. N. 88. L. 128-136)." Funny "and" masquerade " sleds in full they fell out of use in the XIX century due to the disappearance of "carousel" holidays and masquerades from the everyday life of the royal court, "skating" remained until the 1860s.

A clear indication of the growing complexity of the functional diversity of passenger carts from the era of Moscow Rus is the spread of "weekend" and "all-day" sleds, as well as "city", "field" and "marching" sleds among the secular and spiritual elite, in landlords ' farms and among rich citizens. "City" *** and "weekend" were used.-

* Studies have shown that in some cases they were sleds placed on wheels, i.e. an improvised wheeled cart (see [Anuchin, 1890, p. 120-123; Chernyshev, 1980, p. 77]).

** The last funeral using a sleigh-stretcher took place on January 30, 1696, during the burial of Tsar John Alekseevich (see: [Complete Collection of Laws.... 1830, pp. 220-221]).

*** At the beginning of the 20th century, such carts began to be called urban carts (see [Rivosh, 1990, p. 83]).

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They were especially suitable for driving in the city and therefore made more elegant. A special feature of the former was also the widespread use of Western European drawbar harnesses (see, for example: [Search cases..., 1893, stb. 156-157, 175; Razkhodnaya kniga..., 1852, p. 6; Description of notebooks..., 1883, p. 501; Album..., 1903, p. 113-114, fig. 72; Inventory of property..., 1988, p. 216; Materials for the chronicle..., 1887, p. 76]; Archive of SPBIII. F. 132. Op. 2. N 441. l. 5, 16; RGADA. F. 396. Op. 2. N 1021. l. 67; N 1022. L. 430 - 440 vol.; F. 248. Op. 110. N 236. L. 6 vol.; OR RNB, F. 351, N 104/1340. L. 447-448 vol.; RGIA. F. 477. Op. 4. N 99. L. 9-19 vol., 26-27 vol., 48 - 54 vol.; N 400. l. 96 - 104; Op. 7. N 83. L. 93 vol. -115 vol., 145-145 vol.; N 104. l. 271-283 vol., 312 vol. - 313 vol., 332-332 vol.; N 286. L. 1-71; N 288. L. 11-13; N 291. L. 25-27, 28-29). On the "field" and "marching" sledges traveled outside the city, so in general they were inferior in dressiness to the "policemen" and, unlike the latter, which were mostly open, often had a covered body, as well as a shaft harness and sometimes even "beds" [Search cases..., 1893, stb. 157 - 158; Zabelin, 1905, p. 598] (RGADA. F. 396. Op. 2. N 1022. l. 434-437 vol.). Since the XVIII century, such sleds were often called road or traveling (RGIA. F. 477. Op. 4. N 99. L. 9-19 vol., 48-54 vol.; Op. 7. N 81. L. 142 vol. - 158; N 288. L. 5-10; N 290. l. 1-10). In the XIX century. the name "kibitka" (see, for example: Ibid. Op. 7. N 2. l. 57 vol. - 58; N 81. L. 146-158; N 290. L. 1-20; GIA. F. 513. Op. 1. N 935. L. 4) and "troechnye sleigh" (RGIA. F. 477. Op. 7. N 83. l. 93 vol. - 96 vol.) are increasingly replacing these functional terms. Along with the two main types in the XIX century, an intermediate one appeared - "suburban" sleds, which combined urban attire and a suburban three-horse team (Ibid. N 81. l. 168 vol.; N 83. l. 93 vol. - 96 vol.).

The possession of" city "and" field " sleds gradually became a sign of belonging to a privileged part of society; in the XIX century, "city" carriages became widespread among passenger cabs. Therefore, from the end of the 18th century, and especially in the 19th century, this division of sledges began to illustrate the growing differences between the aristocratic and urban subcultures (rich citizens and professional cabmen serving them), on the one hand, and rural ones, on the other.

Since the era of Moscow Rus, covered passenger carts intended for long-distance travel have also become more diverse. Initially, these were" bolki "("polatki") and carts ("kaptans"," carts"," huts"," sleds with a hut"), but since the XVIII century, kibitkas have also become widespread (see, for example, Ibid. N 2. l. 57 vol. - 58; N 81. L. 146-158; N 290. L. 1-20; Gr. F. 513. Op. 1. N 935. L. 4). If the use of carts was mainly limited to the royal, boyar, landowner, patriarchal, episcopal and monastic farms*, then "bolki" and kibitkas were common among different segments of the population. The latter, due to their functional universality, are not very informative for the present study. Carts were intended for a variety of purposes and were divided, on the one hand, into everyday ("walking") and parade ("weekend"), on the other - into "road" ("hiking") and used in the city [Zabelin, 1905, p. 598; Search cases..., 1888; stb. 341-344; Inventory of property..., 1988, p. 215-216] (RGADA. F. 396. Op. 2. N 1022. l. 444 vol. - 454). At the same time, the term "policeman" in relation to carts has not become widespread, probably due to their insignificant use in the city. "Output "carts are not specified in the sources, but can be logically deduced as a pair of"rokhodim".

In addition, L. P. Kirillova identifies warm, children's, funny and memorial carts in the tsar's Stable yard [Crews..., 1985, p. 17; Kirillova, 2000, p. 30], which can be accepted with reservations. The latter modification is doubtful, since only "memorial sledges" are found in the sources, which means an open cart (see above). The terms "children's" and "funny" in this case are essentially synonymous: as M. M. Denisova pointed out, "funny" carts were intended for skating ("fun") of royal children [1954, p. 298]; they differed from the rest in small size (RGADA. F. 396. Op. 2. N 1022. l. 452 vol. - 453, 555 vol.). Warm wagons were called, upholstered inside with fur. In the inventory of the Stable Treasury of 1706-1707, 11 "warm carts" of the XVII century**are indicated. Despite the fact that this term is found only in the Inventory of the royal Stable treasury, such carts probably could have been used by the Russian nobility. Being mainly belonging to the royal court, these modifications of wagons disappeared from life along with the Europeanization of palace life in the Petrine era.

In the XVIII century, the more comfortable "winter bedrooms" and "liney" became very popular among the nobility during long journeys [Materials for the Chronicle..., 1887, p. 76; Karnovich, 1884, p. 335-336]. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the importance of specialized winter carts declined and as the main type of covered winter wagon, secular and spiritual

* Judging by the lack of information in the documents, there were no carts in the coachmen's farms either, or they were found here as an exception.

** In the work of M. M. Denisova, a different figure is given-6 [1954, p. 298].

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the aristocracy used carriages and other summer passenger carriages, which were installed on the so-called winter city runners or shoes (RGADA. F. 1239. Op. 3. N 54422. L. 2 vol.; OR RNB. F. 351. N 104/1340. L. 447; RGIA. F. 477. Op. 2. N 246. l. 65-65 vol., 83, 197; Op. 7. N 3. L. 4-4 vol.; N 88. L. 110 vol. - 112; gr. f. 513. Op. 1. N 646. l. 39 vol. - 40; N 674. l. 1).

Summing up the above, we can conclude that in the X-XV centuries. the main functional types of Russian sledges, known in later times, were formed: cargo, universal and passenger. At the same time, most of the old Russian sleds were universal, i.e. they were used as cargo and passenger transport. At the end of the XV-XVII centuries, their share decreased and the number of cargo and passenger wagons, including closed ones, increased significantly. Since that time, many new modifications of specialized sleds have appeared, reflecting the economic differentiation and social stratification of Russian society. Some of them did not survive to the ethnographic time due to the loss of the need for such carts. Thus, the specialized sleds used by the royal court and the nobility, which became unnecessary after the Europeanization of palace life at the beginning of the XVIII century, disappeared. A similar fate befell a number of monastic carts after the secularization of land at the end of the same century. Finally, clearly visible on the materials of the XVII-XVIII centuries. the division of Russian culture into elite and popular acquires in the XIX century. a new look: at one end of it is the noble and urban subculture, at the other - the rural subculture.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 16.04.07.

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