Many hypotheses are devoted to the meaning and function of the mysterious Paleolithic Venus, but most of them cannot be scientifically verified. In this study, we propose to test the hypothesis of R. D. Guthrie related to the ratio of waist circumference to hip circumference. This index determines the fertility, beauty and health of modern women, its optimal value is 0.7. Guthrie claims that Paleolithic figurines have an average waist-to-hip ratio of 0.655. This, in his opinion, indicates that Paleolithic men preferred women with a more pronounced waist and hips. The average value of the index obtained by us on the basis of data analysis for different regions is much higher than that given by Guthrie. In addition, geographical differences were found. Some of the figurines may have been examples of erotic art, but it is unlikely that all Paleolithic Venuses belong to this category.

Keywords: Paleolithic, art, waist-to-hip ratio, gravette, Paleolithic Venus.

Introduction

One of the Upper Paleolithic art forms, which includes a variety of variants-bas-reliefs, masks, pendants, figurines and sculptural heads - has attracted particular interest around the world over the past century. Since most of these images (dating from the Gravette era) are female, and because of some external features, these figurines are usually called Paleolithic Venuses. Many studies are devoted to them, which analyze the features and possible purpose of figurines. In this regard, there have been many hypotheses concerning various aspects of the life of people of the Gravett era : social structure [Gamble, 1982; Duhard, 1993; Markale, 1999], religion and beliefs [Begouen, 1925; Hawkes, Wolley, 1963; Mussi, Cinq-Mars, Bolduc, 2000], as well as sexuality [Taylor, 1996; Guthrie, 2005]. Yet after more than a century of research, the meaning and function of these anthropomorphic objects remain mysterious, as despite the plausibility of many hypotheses, only a few can be verified. In this article, we consider one of them. It was first proposed by R. D. Guthrie. Based on the waist - to-hip ratio (SOT), which is supposedly close to 0.655 for all figurines, he suggested that these sculptural images are peculiar examples of "paleoerotic art" (Guthrie, 2005).

According to popular belief, low SOT values in women are associated with fertility, beauty, health, and attractiveness [Buss, 2004; Singh, 2006; Singh, Singh, 2006]. Values in the limit-

* This work was supported by the University of Leiden, the Netherlands.

A lax of 0.67-0.80 indicates fertility (Buss, 2004). Women with a low SOT score have less difficulty conceiving, are healthier, and are considered more attractive than women with a higher SOT score (Buss, 2004; Singh, 2006; Singh, Singh, 2006). Although R. D. Guthrie's result was slightly lower than the 0.7 value preferred by modern men in various cultures, the researcher suggested that Paleolithic men were attracted to women with a more pronounced waist and hips (Guthrie, 2005).

In our era, men all over the world prefer women who have significantly less SOT than themselves (Singh, 2006). Since this index indicates fertility, it can be assumed that female figures with similar indicators seemed attractive in the Paleolithic. In addition, according to Devendra and Dorian Singh [Singh, Singh 2006], a low SOT value is preferable regardless of the epoch and geographical location of the sample.

Since many figurines are similar to images of pregnant women and have a high index, we decided to conduct a detailed statistical analysis of Gravette figurines from different regions of Eurasia in order to test the hypothesis of R. D. Guthrie, according to which they belong to erotic art. We also wanted to find out if the average SOT values are similar in four geographical regions - Western and Central Europe, the Eastern European Plain, and Siberia.

Gravett Culture

The Gravette techno complex is found all over Europe and dates back to the post-Aurignacian period. It is characterized by noai-type incisors, Gravette tips, blunt-edged plates, and microgravette tools. Regional differences are noted (Bordes, 2003). Although the term "gravett" is widely used in the literature, the chronological boundaries of this period are unclear. In addition, Gravett technology is maintained longer in some regions than in others. For example, in France, the gravette dates from 28-20 thousand years AGO (Laurent, 2007), while in Eastern Europe it is 30-20 thousand years ago (Svoboda, 2001). In Italy, it also lasted up to 20 thousand years AGO, and the next Epigravetta period - up to 16 thousand years ago (Mussi, Cing-Mars, Bolduc, 2000). Thus, we will consider archaeological complexes to be Gravettan if they correspond to the Gravett period of their region based on the results of radiometric analysis or relative dating using stylistic attribution.

Waist-to-hip ratio

The size of the fat component of the body depends on gender, and in women-and on age. Before puberty, boys and girls have a similar SOT. Then, in men, more fat is deposited in the upper body, including the abdominal area, while in the lower body, fat deposition decreases. This type of fat deposition is called the android type (Singh and Luis, 1995). As a rule, after reaching puberty, the fat component is more than 20% of the total body weight in women, and less than 10% in men [Guthrie, 2005]. Women with a fat component below 20 % have problems with the menstrual cycle and a low probability of conception [Ibid.; Zaadstra et al., 1993]. After menarche, estrogens activate fat deposition in the breasts, buttocks, and thighs - the so-called gynoid type of fat deposition [Singh and Luis, 1995]. A higher level of circulating testosterone is associated with a higher SBP, while estrogen levels are associated with a lower one (Singh, 2006; Sugiyama, 2004). Thus, sex differences are manifested not only in the amount of fat, but also in its distribution [Buss, 2004]. Although the average STS values vary somewhat by ethnic group, regardless of environmental conditions, we could not find any where this ratio for women was equal to that for men or higher (Singh and Luis, 1995). According to D. Singh and S. Louis, "neither moderate obesity, nor relative malnutrition, nor climatic conditions, in particular, differences between the Arctic and temperate zones, have a significant impact on either the gynoid or android types of fat deposition" [Ibid., p. 53].

SOTB and fertility. SOT is independent of the total fat component and serves as an indicator of women's fertility and long-term health status [Wing et al., 1991; Zaadstra et al., 1993; Singh and Luis, 1995; Buss, 2004]. In healthy women, it is 0.67-0.80 [Buss, 2004]. Depending on the size of the chest, this range indicates a pear-shaped or hourglass shape (Zaadstra et al., 1993). Women with higher SST values, i.e. with a waist that approaches the circumference of the hips [Ibid.; Buss, 2004; Guthrie, 2005], are less likely to conceive a child. Moreover, regardless of the fat component, age, duration and regularity of the menstrual cycle, smoking, the number of children, and the degree of fecundity of the partner, a high SOT value indicates reduced fertility [Zaadstra et al., 1993]. E. J. Tripp could not find any studies that would prove that women with a high risk of developing pregnancy are more likely to have a high risk of developing pregnancy. the index is more fertile than with a low one. The former, in addition, are more susceptible to various diseases - diabetes, hypertension, heart attacks,

They are also more likely to suffer from strokes and gallbladder diseases [Buss 2004; Wing et al., 1991]; they are also more prone to depression, anxiety, and anger [Wing et al., 1991].

SOTB and attractiveness. Since ovulation in women does not have external signs, men who can choose healthy and fertile partners are more likely to pass on their genes to their offspring. Thus, one would expect that in general, women with low SOT values (i.e., with relatively slimmer waists) would be more attractive to men. To test this hypothesis, men of different nationalities, professions, and educational levels were asked to rate drawings and photographs of women with different body weights (underweight, normal, and overweight) and STS usually in the range of 0.7-1.0 [Singh, 1993, 2006; Henss, 1995; Furnham, Moutafi, Baguma, 2002; Singh, Singh, 2006].

Devendra Singh and some others have shown that men are particularly attracted to women with low indicators, in many cases close to 0.7 [Singh, 1993, 2006; Henss, 1995; Buss, 2004; Singh Singh 2006]. This is interesting, since the average SDR in women today exceeds 0.7 [Guthrie, 2005]. A recent article by D. Singh [Singh, 2006] notes a widespread association between attractiveness and low SOT values among 20 ethnic and cultural groups, in particular, among residents of the United States (white, Black, and Hispanic), England, Germany, Holland, Poland, Greece, Australia, Kenya, Guinea-Bissau, and Uganda The Azores, the Shiviar tribe of Eastern Ecuador, the Indonesians, the inhabitants of Hong Kong, India (the Sugali and Yanadi tribes), Chile, and Jamaica [Ibid., p. 364]. Interestingly, men in most groups prefer women with an ETH of about 0.7, while in Uganda they prefer women with an ETH of 0.5 (Furhnam, Moutafi, Baguma, 2002). However, in all of the aforementioned groups, men like women with significantly lower SOT than they do.

Methodology and results of R. D. Guthrie

R. D. Guthrie decided to check the information about SOTHB on 53 Paleolithic female images. He measured the hips and waists in front and back of each of them and calculated this figure (oral report by R. D. Guthrie, 2008). If SOTHEBY's falls in the "fertility range" and is generally low, it can be assumed that the images really represent the ideal of beauty from the point of view of Paleolithic men. Guthrie's results showed an average value of 0.655 with an error of 0.0188 and a standard deviation of 0.133 (Guthrie, 2005). Although these data fall within the "fertility range", they suggest that Paleolithic men, compared to modern ones, preferred women with even more pronounced waist and hips [Ibid.].

Materials and methods

Our database included 69 copies. However, there were discrepancies in SOT's estimates based on photographs and direct measurements, so we had to exclude 23 figurines, the dimensions of which were determined from photographs. Another 17 figures were either too damaged, or their details interfered with measurements of waist and hip circumferences. Thus, the sample was 29 copies. It is dominated by figurines from the Eastern European Plain and Malta, which is explained not only by the large number of figurines from these regions, but also by their almost complete preservation. On the contrary, many Brassempui figurines were damaged during excavations and some parts of them were irretrievably lost (White, 2006). In addition, figures from Central Europe carved from burnt loess are too fragmentary to measure.

The waist circumference is measured in the narrowest part, and the hips-in the widest (Fig. 1). For measurements, a thread was used, which was then applied to the measuring tape. All dimensions were checked three times. Calipers were not used because they cannot be used to measure circles.

We preferred to measure authentic figurines, but sometimes we only had casts at our disposal. When both casts and originals were available, both were measured. At the same time, it turned out that the casts give reliable results. Although the measurement itself seems simple, in practice it is quite difficult. In the absence of an image of the navel, the waist was measured in the narrowest part in the middle of the torso, under the chest. In cases where it was impossible to determine the waist or hips with confidence, the SOT was not calculated.

Results

The obtained values of STS range from 0.58 (Yeliseyevichi on the East European Plain) to 1.51 (Gagarino on the East European Plain, statuette 2); most indicators are in the range of 0.89-1.29 (Table 1, Figure 2). The average value of STS for all 29 statuettes is 1.049 (standard error 0.035) with a 95% confidence interval of 0.976-1.122. For Siberia, Central and Western Europe, this indicator is close to 0.97 (Table. 2), although

Figure 1. Places for measuring waist and hip circumferences in the Willendorf Venus.

the variability varies within groups. The variation in values is very small in Siberia, whereas it is larger in Central Europe (Figure 2). It is difficult to estimate the variability in Western Europe, because we had only two statuettes from this region. The average SOT value for the East European Plain is much higher (1.15) than for the other three regions and is more variable. There is one "drop-down" value-0.58 (Yeliseyevichi). After repeated analysis of information about this statue, it turned out that it dates back to a time later than Gravett - 17 thousand years AGO (Soffer, 1985). Therefore, it was decided to exclude it from further analysis, as well as Venus from Galgenberg, which belongs to Aurignacian (Clottes, 2000).

At the first stage of the study, we were going to check whether the idea of fertility is embodied in the considered female images and whether they can be considered examples of" Paleolithic eroticism", as suggested by R. D. Guthrie. Comparison of the average SOT value obtained from the measurements of 27 statuettes with the value given in his work (0.655) using the t-test showed a significant difference

Table 1. Waist-to-hip ratio of female figurines from different regions of Eurasia

Fig. 2. SOTB of all figurines in the sample.

Table 2. Average waist-to-hip ratio in different regions

(t = 13,21, p < 0,0001). It remains significant even when the Elysian statue and the Galgenberg Venus are included (t = 11.26,p < 0.0001).

At the second stage of the study, we wanted to test the degree of uniformity of STS within Eurasia. According to the data on 27 figurines, a variance analysis was performed. After confirming the statistical significance of the differences between all the mean values (p = 0.0025), we started estimating pairwise differences using the Scheffe multiple comparison method. It turned out that the STS of figurines from Siberia, Western and Central Europe do not differ significantly, and the average value for the East European Plain differs significantly from that for Siberia (Figure 3). In addition, Figure 3 shows that all our confidence intervals were outside the range of values according to R. D. Guthrie (shown as an average of 0.655 with a confidence half-interval of 0.0376 equal to twice the error of -0.0188). Only one of the values obtained by us falls into it-SOTB for Eliseevich. However, as already mentioned, it is not at all typical for Gravett figurines of the Eastern European Plain.

According to the results of the STS analysis, the statuettes considered from the four main geographical regions do not correspond to the conclusions of R. D. Guthrie. In addition, it turned out that the STS varies within Eurasia, and the indicators for Siberia, Central and Western Europe are similar, while for the Eastern European Plain they significantly differ from them.

Discussion

In his research, R. D. Guthrie does not provide specific information about the female images used, but mentions, however, that both figurines and reliefs were analyzed (Guthrie, 2005). In this case, questions arise: which regions and time periods were considered, which works were used? If Guthrie included statuettes and reliefs from the Madeleine period in his sample, then the values given by him are most likely underestimated. Images of this period convey the female body much more abstractly (Figure 4) , and some are so sketchy that you can even doubt it

Figure 3. Average SOT values and 95% confidence intervals.

4. Profile images of Gravette (a) and Madeleine (b) Venus.

in their anthropomorphism. The waist and hips are much more pronounced in Madeleine figurines; accordingly, the SOT values are very low. E. J. Tripp was able to measure the waist and hip girths of two Solutrean or Madeleine female figurines from the castle of Montrepo (Germany). The SOT in one is 0.5, in the other - 0.61, i.e. the waist and hips in both cases are much more pronounced than in Gravetta figurines. If Guthrie used similar images, this could be one of the reasons for the differences between his data and ours.

Another reason may be methodical. Guthrie does not provide any photos that make it clear how he measured waist and hip circumferences. It has already been pointed out that figurines cannot be considered realistic images of women, and their proportions may differ from the real ones. Therefore, it is very important to standardize the measurements. We did not measure hip circumference at the pelvic level, but much lower (see Figure 1). In addition, Guthrie took measurements from photographs of figurines taken from the front and back (oral communication, 2008). This method allows us to estimate the SOT approximately, but it is impossible to accurately determine the index from the image. When we applied this method to the statuette 1 from Kostenok I, stored in the Kunstkamera (St. Petersburg), the SOT was 0.86, and when measuring the waist and hip circumferences on the statuette itself-1.19. This discrepancy is explained by the inability to accurately measure the protrusion of the abdomen and buttocks from photos. In addition, although the waist and hips appear well defined in many of the statuettes taken from behind, the figure is rounded in the frontal image. Such, for example, is the Venus from Dolni Vestonice. Both of these factors may have led to an underestimation of the Guthrie index.

The results obtained by us indicate high SOT values both on average for the entire sample and for each geographical region separately, which clearly does not agree with the idea of "Paleolithic eroticism". According to our data, the Eastern European figurines are statistically significantly different from the Siberian ones. Unfortunately, it was not possible to measure Venus from Italy. Including them in the sample would make our conclusions more reliable. In the future, we will have to specifically study the SOTHB of the Madeleine figurines.

Conclusions

Our results contradict the conclusions of R. D. Guthrie and do not agree with the hypothesis of Paleolithic Venuses as examples of erotic art. This is most likely caused by methodological differences and / or unequal composition of the samples. It would be possible to assume that Paleolithic men were attracted to women of a denser build with less pronounced waist and hips, but we do not see any grounds for such a hypothesis. Differences between regions also make it highly unlikely. By this logic, it would be necessary to conclude that men were simply promiscuous in their inclinations. As mentioned earlier, women with high SOT values are more likely to develop serious illnesses, depression, and have more difficulty conceiving. Men who chose such women would be less likely to leave offspring. It is possible that some of the figurines were examples of "paleoerotics", but hardly all of them. So, the artist who made the figure from Bones probably tried to convey pregnancy, while the" torso "from Brassempui could really be a model of"paleoerotic". The imagery of Paleolithic female figurines could depend on the context: some may have expressed the idea of sexuality, others depicted pregnancy, and still others - say, ancestors. If the figurines are considered realistic, then the changes observed within each region correspond to the hypothesis of P. Rice that Venus depicts women of different ages, since the SOT changes throughout a woman's life (Rice, 1981).

Acknowledgements

E. J. Tripp is grateful to W. Rubrux for his support and assistance in organizing the work in Monrepos and St. Petersburg, as well as to all those who helped with the Monrepos collections, especially S. Gaudzinski and O. Joris. visas, access to materials and answers to all questions about Russian figurines. Thank you to everyone who helped in St. Petersburg, especially the curators of the collections of the Departments of Paleolithic Archeology of the Hermitage (S. Demeshchenko) and the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kunstkamera) (G. Khlopachev).

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The article was submitted to the editorial Board on 10.09.11, in the final version-on 12.04.12.

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