The paper considers preliminary results of geoarchaeological studies of monuments of the Saka elite of the Early Iron Age on the territory of the South-Eastern Semirechye / (Kazakhstan). The article analyzes the climatic and landscape features of the studied region as one of the important factors in the formation of a certain type of economy of the ancient population of the region. The author gives a detailed description of archaeological sites - burial mounds and additional structures on their periphery, including ritual roads, which today are the most ancient evidence of road construction in the Central Asian region. The landscape and geographical location of Saka burial grounds along the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau - territorial markers of the sacred ancestral space of the Saks-is discussed.

Key words: Kazakhstan, South-Eastern Semirechye, Early Iron Age, Saki, burial ground.

Introduction

The southeastern Semirechye region is characterized by a unique concentration of monuments of the Saka elite of the first millennium BC. However, only a few of the hundreds of archaeological sites located here have been studied. The main investigations were carried out in the 1960s and 1970s (Akishev and Kushaev, 1963; Akishev, 1978), and some excavations were carried out in the first decade of the XXI century. [Samashev, Grigoriev, and Zhumabekova, 2005; Samashev et al., 2006]. In the South-Eastern Semirechye region, there are practically no monuments studied using the latest methods, so one of the tasks of research that has been carried out since 2008* is to try to correct this situation**. In addition, using GPS (Garmin model), it was planned to determine the coordinates of well-known, mapped and certified monuments of the Early Iron Age, as well as those identified during the project and during technical maintenance.-

* In 2008, the TOPOI Research Center (Exzellenzcluster 264-TOPOI, Berlin, Germany) developed an interdisciplinary project "Archaeological and geoarchaeological studies of the South-Eastern Semirechye/Kazakhstan", which aims to study the monuments of the elite of the Early Iron Age of the region based on the methods of archeology and physical geography. The research was carried out with the participation of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation (Berlin, Parzinger, with the participation of M. Nawrot and R. Boroffka), the German Archaeological Institute (Berlin, A. Nagler), the Institute of Physical Geography of the Free University (Berlin, B. Schutt, K. Singer and M. Blettermann) and the Department of Early Iron Age Research of the Institute of Archaeology. A. Kh. Margulan of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Almaty, Z. Samashev, with the participation of B. Nurmukhanbetov).

** The project has not yet been completed, so all of the following reflects the current state of research.

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support for a wide range of GIS programs for aerospace images to process them topographically. It was supposed to find out: in which natural and landscape zones of Semirechye there are burial grounds with mounds of the Saka elite? Is there any correlation in the distribution of archaeological sites? Is there a pattern in the arrangement of mounds on the necropolis, depending on their size and the shape of the mound? How did migration processes affect the development and use of new territories? Were the "royal" mounds of the Saks of Semirechye only places of burial, or was their function broader?

Geographical characteristics

Semirechye (kaz. Zhetysu is a geographical and historical region in Central Asia. Currently, the main part of Semirechye is located on the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan, and its southernmost and south-eastern extremities are located on the territories of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan and the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China.

The territory of Semirechye, through which seven major rivers flow (Ili, Karatal, Sarkand, Bien, Aksu, Lepsa and Baskan), extends from the mountain ranges of the Northern Tien Shan, Trans-Ili and Dzungarian Alatau in the south to the lakes Balkhash, Sasykol and Alakol in the north. The research area for the project is the south-eastern part of Semirechye, located on the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Its northern border is considered to be p. Ili and Kapchagai reservoir, south - the mountains of the Trans-Ili Alatau, including the Kegen plateau, west - the Bolshaya and Malaya Almatinka Rivers, east - the eastern tip of the Trans-Ili Alatau.

The entire territory under study covers four landscape zones (Figure 1). Here, at a fairly short distance (27 km in a straight aerial line from the highlands of the Northern Tien Shan to the southern border of the plain plane), very large elevation differences relative to sea level are observed (Talgar Peak - 4,975 m, the southern border of the plain plane-973 m). The highlands of the Northern Tien Shan are replaced by loess foothills, then by alluvial deposits of drift cones that turn into a flat plane.

Three climatic zones can be traced on the territory of Semirechye (Fig. 2). The Tien Shan highlands are characterized by a nival climate with rather short summers and a large amount of precipitation. Moreover, solid precipitation falls much more than it has time to melt and evaporate. The foothills are dominated by a temperate continental climate; compared to the highlands, there is significantly less precipitation, longer summers, and milder weather in the winter months. The steppe zone is dominated by a sharply continental climate with hot summers, cold winters and low precipitation. Rare cloud cover leads to huge differences in day and night temperatures. Low precipitation and, as a consequence, low humidity are the most important characteristics of this climate zone.

These features led to the presence of a relatively small area of northern slopes

Fig. 1. Landscape zones of Semirechye. Photo by M. Blettermann.

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2. Climatic zones of Semirechye. Photo by M. Blettermann. 1-sharply continental climate; 2 - moderately continental; 3 - nival.

The Tien Shan region has various vegetation zones, the combined use of which provides advantages for animal husbandry. A strip of foothills with fertile soils, mild winters and an irrigation system during the hot summer months is a great place to develop agriculture. It can be assumed that the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau were a hub for both sedentary and nomadic populations.

General characteristics

Early Iron Age burial grounds containing mounds of the Saka elite were re-examined, measured, and documented. Structures with a height of 2 m or more and a diameter of 30 - 40 m are considered as elite mounds (Fig. 3).

During mapping, it was found that all the necropolises studied are located on the banks of rivers - on the second or third above-floodplain terrace, along the foothills of the Trans-Ili Alatau (i.e., almost at the landscape junction of alluvial deposits and the plain plane), are oriented to the north and are located at a distance of 0.5 - 3.0 km from the foothills, and occupy the most fertile land. A high concentration of burial grounds with large mounds was also observed on the Kegen plateau and in the high-altitude valleys of the Trans-Ili and Kungei Alatau. As a rule, there is only one burial ground within a single watershed. Almost all the burial grounds studied were built on the west bank. An exception is the burial ground near the village of Turgen, located on both banks of the Turgen River. Thus, the rivers represented a natural landscape boundary between the sacred sites of the "royal" burial grounds.

All burial grounds of the Early Iron Age with mounds of the Saka elite are built on the same model. The mounds form an average of one to seven chains. In one mound chain there are from 3 to 20 mounds, which are built along the north-south line (with slight deviations).

Mound mounds are created on the same principle. Almost all of them have the appearance of a truncated cone with steep slopes. The southern slope is more gentle than the others. On the surface, the stones of the mound shell are rarely traced. Almost all the mounds bear traces of looting.

Semirechye burial grounds are similar in their location and external shape to those in the northern part of the Pontic region (Mozolevsky and Polin, 2005; Polin, 2007).

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3. Investigated burial grounds and settlements in the South-Eastern Semirechye.

written testimonies of ancient authors, such as Herodotus. The "royal" mounds correspond in form to the Scythian sanctuaries described, in particular those of Ares [Herodotus, 2006, book 4, § 62, pp. 276-277], but at the same time they represent places of collective memory that were of particular importance for the self-identification of the Scythians (in our case, the Saks) [Ibid., § 71, pp. 279-280; § 127, pp. 300-301]. Thus, the burial grounds of the Saka elite of Semirechye are not only "cemeteries of leaders", but also sacred places of cult self-identification of Saks.

On the territory of the South-Eastern Semirechye region, mounds were created and placed in the burial ground system, obeying, as a rule, one principle. However, in every third of the burial grounds studied, there are sub-square mounds with a pyramidal mound (Fig. 4). Also, every third necropolis studied contains mounds with ritual roads. Almost every fourth burial ground contains mounds with stone rings. Some monuments, such as the Asa Zaga necropolis, have ritual roads and mounds with a pyramidal mound. Here are the characteristics of three burial grounds - Issyk, Turgen and Asy Zaga.

Issyk burial ground (Fig. 5). Its coordinates are 43 ° 23 '30.09" N, 77°23 '30.75" E, height above sea level 835 m; length along the north-south line 2.7 km, west-east-2.3 km.

4. Correlation of Saka elite necropolises with additional architectural elements.

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5. Issyk burial ground. View from the north.

The necropolis is located approximately 40 km east-northeast of Almaty, 6.5 km northwest of Issyk (kaz. Esik), on the modern left bank of the river of the same name. South of the burial ground are the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau. The object became world-famous due to the discovery of the "Golden Man" in the 1970s (Fig. 6) (Akishev, 1978; Parzinger, 2004, pp. 55-57; Samašev, 2007) and before the discovery of the "Tsarskoye" border 5 in Kurgan in 2001. Arzhan-2 (Republic of Tyva in the Russian Federation), which contained more than 9.3 thousand artifacts, including 5.7 thousand of gold [Čugunov, Parzinger, Nagler, 2003, 2007, 2010], was considered the richest burial site of the Early Iron Age east of the Ural Mountains. Such an important burial ground for science, unfortunately, disappears: buildings appear on its territory. Today it has 52 mounds of large and medium size (Fig. 7). The diameter of the earth mounds of the mounds is 16-145 m, the height is 2-8 m. The burial ground includes six or seven mound chains stretching from northwest to southeast parallel to the riverbed. Due to the development of part of the territory of the necropolis, the exact number of the latter cannot be determined now. All burial mounds have one or more predatory craters. The mounds are rounded, hemispherical in shape with a somewhat flattened top. Three slopes of the mound mounds are quite steep, while the fourth is usually sloping to the south. Other external architectural features of the burial mounds of this burial ground have not been identified.

8). Coordinates: 43°26 '37.29" N, 77°35 '59.99" E, height above sea level 826 m; length along the north-south line 6.7 km, west-east-4.1 km. The Turgen Necropolis is located 17.8 km east-northeast of the Issyk necropolis, on both banks of the river of the same name. The western part of the burial ground (on the left bank of the Turgen River) is located 1.5 km north of the village of Turgen (kaz. Turgen), east - on the territory of the village of Karakemer (kaz. ) and the vineyards lying to the north of it. Currently, there are 33 large and medium-sized mounds in the burial ground (Figure 9). Of these, 20 mounds, which form two chains, are located on the left bank of the river. The third chain, consisting of at least 13 mounds*, is located on the opposite bank. The mound chains are oriented along the north-south line and are located parallel to the riverbed.

Figure 6. "Golden Man".

Reconstruction of K. A. Akishev (based on: [Samašev, 2007]).

* Due to the development of part of the burial ground on the right bank, the exact number of mounds could not be determined.

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7. Plan of the Issyk burial ground (SPOT).

Fig. 8. Turgen burial ground. View from the south.

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The diameter of the mounds is from 22 to 70 m, the height is from 3 - 4 to 9 - 10 m. All the mounds have traces of looting. The mounds are rounded, hemispherical in shape with a somewhat flattened top. The southern part of the mound of 27 mounds is more sloping. Mounds 7, 16 and 17 (according to our working numbering) were partially or completely excavated*, mound. 23 is partially destroyed**, so it was not possible to determine which side of them was sloping.

Mound 12 had a sub-square shape; it was built in the form of a platform with a flat top. A ring of white and red stones (river pellets) was laid out around mound 4 at a distance of 16 m from the base. In the north-eastern sector between the stone ring and the base of the mound, a stone mound with a diameter of 12 m and a height of up to 0.2 m is recorded, which is probably a small mound.

The most interesting is mound 3, which has a diameter of 70 m and a height of 7 m (Fig. 10). It has a rounded hemispherical mound in plan, a strongly flattened top, and a southern sloping slope. The entire embankment was covered with small to medium-sized gray stone. At the top of the mound, a predatory funnel was recorded. In the peripheral part, the mound is surrounded by 41 structures, which represented a rounded, oval or elliptical cluster of stones, barely rising above the modern surface, with a diameter of 1.5 - 6.3 m (Fig. 11). 30 m from the base of the mound there was a ritual road with an average width of 3 m, the diameter of its ring along the outer line is 139 m (Figure 12). Its outer borders were marked with large red stones. The interior space was filled with gray-white river pellets of medium size. 26 m from

Fig. 9. Plan of the Turgen burial ground (SPOT).

10. Mound 3 of the Turgen burial ground. View from the east-southeast.

* Conservation excavations of emergency monuments were carried out by B. Nurmukhanbetov in 1992 [Nurmukhanbetov, Chentsov, Zhaksylykov] and 1997 [Nurmukhanbetov].

** According to B. Nurmukhanbetov, in the 1980s, a cinema with an adjacent paved parking lot was built on the surface of mound 23 within the village of Karakemer. Soon the movie theater was destroyed. In 2009, traces of the foundation of a movie theater and an abandoned parking lot were traced on the surface of the mound.

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11. Plan of mound 3 of the Turgen burial ground (according to Nurmukhanbetov, 1998).

Fig. 12. Ritual road (western part). Mound 3 of the Turgen burial ground. View from the south.

a stone ring with a diameter of up to 200 m, which consisted only of gray stones of medium and large sizes, was laid out 61 m from the foot of the mound (Fig. 13).

Thus, mound 3 of the Turgen burial ground was a ritual complex consisting of at least four main elements (a mound mound, stone structures on the periphery of the mound, a ritual road and a stone ring). It is necessary to note the color scheme of the structures (red-white-gray), which certainly had a meaning, possibly ritual.

Mound 3 undoubtedly occupied a dominant position in the burial ground, and thanks to the colored stones, the entire structure acquired additional features of monumentality.

Asa Zaga burial ground (Figs. 14, 15). Coordinates: 43°30 '18.13" N, 78°20 '26.32" E, height above sea level 840 m; length along the north-south line 1.4 m, west-east-0.5 km. The necropolis is located near the village of Kyzylsharyk (kaz. 14 km south-south-east of the town of Chilik (kaz. Shelek) on the right bank of the river. Aces (kaz. Aces). All the mounds on the southern side are sloping, the periphery is practically undisturbed. The burial ground consists of six mounds built along the north-south line. Its peculiarity is that all the mounds are quite large and different, in diameter from 40 to 148 m, height from 2.5 to 21 m.

Mound 1 is the largest and, apparently, the main one on the burial ground: its height is 21 m, its diameter is 148 m (Fig. 16). Taking into account the diameter of the ritual road based on its appearance-

13. The stone ring. The western part. Mound 3 of the Turgen burial ground. View from the south.

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at the edge, the size of the structure increases to 252 m. The mound marks the northernmost point of the necropolis, stands apart, to the northwest of the chain of other mounds. On the earthen mound of the mound, small and medium-sized stones of the mound shell are traced. The semi-spherical mound, rounded in plan, had a flattened top, and the southern slope was sloping. In the central and northern parts of the mound, two predatory craters of rather large size were recorded.

47 m from the foot of the mound there was a ritual road, the total width of which was 5 m (Fig.

14. Asa Zag's burial ground. View from the south.

15. Plan of the Asa Zaga burial ground.

16. Mound 1 of the Asa Zaga burial ground. View from the west.

Figure 17. Ritual road (south-western part). View from the east. Mound 1 of the Asa Zag burial ground.

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the road was bounded at the edges by round stones of a red-pink hue laid in a line (average size 60×40×30 cm). The interior was filled with rammed fine stone and clay. Inside the delineated space of the entire structure between the mound mound and the ritual road, 21 stone structures of a rounded shape with a diameter of 1.5 to 5.0 m are fixed. These structures are most likely small mounds, but this can only be clarified during excavations.

Mound 2 is the smallest in the burial ground (Fig. 18). Its hemispherical mound with a strongly flattened top reaches a height of 3 m and a diameter of 40 m. Single small stones were found on the surface of the mound. In the center is a predatory funnel. The southern slope of the mound is more sloping. Mound 3 is sub-square in plan, with a mound in the form of a truncated pyramid (Fig. 19). The height of the mound is 4 m, the sides are 56 m long. In 17 m from the foot of the mound, a ritual road was built (the length of each side is on average 95 m), repeating the shape of the mound mound. The latter had an approximate orientation with angles to the cardinal directions. Its entire surface is covered with crushed stones of a red hue. In the center of the mound is a large predatory funnel. In the north-western corner of the mound, the remains of a crepida are recorded. The southern slope of the mound is more sloping than the others.

The 2.5 m wide ritual road around Mound 3 is identical in design to the Mound 1 ritual road, but differs only in size and shape. Around Mound 1 it is preserved very well, around Mound 3 only the western and northern parts are in the same condition, while the eastern and southern parts are preserved fragmentary, with small segments or single stone lines visible on the modern surface.

Mound 4 reaches a height of 5 m and a diameter of 62 m (Fig. 20). The hemispherical earthen mound of the mound with a flattened top was covered with small and medium-sized white stones. There were no stones in the upper part of the mound. In the central part of the mound, a decrease was recorded, which apparently arose as a result of looting. The south-southwest slope of the mound is the most sloping compared to the others.

A ritual road with a width of 2 m and a diameter of 106 m along the outer edge of the mound ran 20 m from the base of the mound; it has been preserved in fragments. On the north-northwest periphery of the mound, between the mound mound and the ritual road, four small stone structures were recorded, which can be interpreted as small mounds.

Mound 5 was 6 m high and 72 m in diameter (Fig. 21). A rounded hemispherical mound with a flattened top was covered with medium-sized stones along the slopes. There are no stones marked on the top of the mound. There were also no signs of predatory craters and subsidence on the mound. The south-western slope of the mound is the most sloping compared to the others.

Mound 6 is 5 m high and 68 m in diameter (Fig. 22). The entire surface of the rounded in pla-

18. Mound 2 of the Asa Zaga burial ground. View from the west.

19. Mound 3 of the Asa Zaga burial ground. View from the west.

20. Mound 4 of the Asa Zaga burial ground. View from the west-northwest.

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a semi-spherical mound with a flattened top is covered with individual stones of medium and small sizes. There was no stone covering on the top, and a predatory crater was marked in the center. The southern slope of the embankment is the most sloping compared to the others.

At the foot of the mound on the northern side of the modern surface rises a kind of "step" (length 52 m, width 22, height up to 0.5 m) of earth, clay and broken stone. Since Mound 6 is the most extreme and the territory to the south of it was plowed open, it can be assumed that the rest of the structure of the complex was destroyed, and the "step" is the remains of the destroyed platform of the mound.

Neither the sub-square shape of the pyramid mounds in the plan, nor the presence of ritual roads around some mounds can be explained only by the architectural idea of the structure. Initial studies of this phenomenon in the Southeastern Semirechye region also failed to provide any definite answer (Samashev et al., 2009). What causes the difference in the shape of the mounds, the presence or absence of ritual roads around them-will be found out in the course of further research. The construction of such" deviant " structures can most likely be attributed to the specifics of religious beliefs and related Saka rituals.

Ritual roads

The fact that mound 3 of the Turgen burial ground and mounds 1, 3 and 4 of the Asa Zaga burial ground were built around ritual roads, and not double stone rings, is proved by the results of excavations of mound 1 of the Joan Tobe burial ground, located 12 km north-east of the village of Chilik and 17 km north-north-east The burial site of Asa Zag, which was investigated by the German-Kazakh archaeological expedition in 2008 [Ibid.]. Like Asa Zag's burial ground, the largest mound in the Joan Tobe necropolis was the northernmost mound. It was also delineated by a ritual road. Excavations have been carried out on several sections of the road, which give us an idea of how the road was built (Figure 23)*.

The investigated ritual road around mound 1 of the Joan Tobe burial ground is the first evidence of the burial site.

21. Mound 5 of the Asa Zaga burial ground. View from the northwest.

22. Mound 6 of the Asa Zaga burial ground. View from the west-northwest.

23. Mound 1 of the Joan Tobe burial ground. Plan and section of the ritual road (eastern sector). Item 31.

* I express my gratitude to Z. To Samashev, A. Nagler, G. Parzinger, M. Navrot and R. Boroffka for the opportunity to publish this photo.

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the existence of a tradition of road construction among the population of Central Asia at such an early time [Ibid.]. The technology was highly developed: the route of the future road was leveled, compacted and dragged out with medium-sized stones. Thus, the foundation of the future road was created. At the edges, it was bounded by large oblong stones laid in a line. Then a layer of clay mixed with fine crushed stone was applied and rammed on it [Ibid.].

Necropolises - sacred ancestral spaces of Saks

The reasons for the creation of several necropolises containing mounds of the Saka elite in a relatively small space are still poorly understood. It can be assumed that one such burial ground, where the related nobility was buried, was a "family cemetery" and marked the boundaries of the territory subject to a certain clan. However, since there are no early burial mounds in the Southeastern Semirechye region, and the bulk of the monuments studied here date back to the 5th-3rd centuries BC [Parzinger, 2006, p. 659-662], we can conclude that these burial mounds were constructed almost simultaneously - during 180-200 years in the 5th - 3rd centuries BC.E. and about the coexistence of several genera, which at approximately the same time marked the territories under their control with burial mounds of the elite. However, it can be refuted with a simple mathematical calculation. In the study area of the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau (excluding high-altitude valleys), the length of which is about 200 km, 12 burial grounds with mounds of the Saka elite were recorded, located relatively equidistant from each other. The "possessions" of the same family, located in the vicinity of the necropolis, stretched on average for 16.7 km; this territory was absolutely not enough for the ancient population, which led a nomadic lifestyle.

In our opinion, the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau were not the main area of settlement of clans, tribes and tribal associations of Saka culture carriers (it was located outside this region). Here mounds of "leaders"were erected. It was here that the Saks brought their dead "kings". Each clan or tribe had a certain area of "sacred space", where it created mound chains, which eventually formed burial grounds. The territory of one such "sacred site" was limited to natural boundaries, in our case - rivers. It is not yet possible to explain which lands belonged to the "sacred sites" - on the same bank where the burial grounds were located, or on the opposite bank.

Conclusions

In the course of field research in the South-Eastern Semirechye region, on the line of landscape transition from foothills to plains on the banks of rivers, the area of monuments of the Saka period of the Early Iron Age, including large mounds of the Saka elite, was revealed. The mounds form chains oriented mainly along the north-south line. Necropolises can have one or more chains.

There is a pattern in the choice of places for burial grounds and the organization of the internal space of necropolises. The mounds were built on the same principle. Almost all of them are rounded in shape, with a flattened top and one more sloping slope, usually to the south. The shape of the Saka elite mounds is similar to that of European Scythia and generally corresponds to the Scythian sanctuaries described in detail by Herodotus, in particular those of Ares [2006, Book 4, § 62, pp. 276-277]*. Parallels should be noted with other investigated archaeological sites of the Scythian cultural and historical community, to which the Saka culture carriers belong, for example, with the Scythian sanctuary on the Baikal burial ground in Northern Kazakhstan [Parzinger et al., 2003] or with the large "royal" Barsuchy Log burial mound in Khakassia [Parzinger, Nagler, Gotlib, 2007]. It can be assumed that the large mounds of the Saka elite repeated at least in form the sanctuary of Ares, one of the main gods of the Scythian pantheon. As is known, in most cultures, the highest nobility was usually buried in shrines or temples [Stadelmann, 1985; Hesberg and Panciera, 1994; Brandenburg, 1972; Heidenreich and Johannes, 1971; Gersman, 2008]; this tradition could also have existed among representatives of the Scythian cultural and historical community [Mozolevsky and Polin, 2005, p. 198]. Whether the large mounds in which the Saka elite are buried were shrines, or whether they were only analogous in form to shrines-temples-is not yet clear. The presence of ritual roads and ditches around the mounds that delineate the boundary of the "sacred space" suggests that the mounds in particular and the burial grounds of the Saka elite in general were not only cemeteries, but also had a sacred significance.

In the light of the information obtained in the course of recent studies, the native Saka culture appears in a new form. The nomads of the Early Iron Age were not only cattle breeders and excellent warriors, but also, judging by the clear layout and monumentality of the structures, excellent organizers, architects, etc.-

* According to some researchers, the modern shape of the mound is the result of "natural" processes [Rudenko, 1918, p.4; Mozolevsky and Polin, 2005, p. 236-237].

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tors and builders with the most powerful analytically well-coordinated and well-developed logistics system. They were also engaged in road construction; the ritual roads they built were the only example of such activity in Central Asia at that time.

The next step of our research is the processing of the obtained materials and their systematization. Based on the obtained data, a theoretical model of the historical and cultural landscape of the South-Eastern Semirechye region will be created.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 24.06.10.

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